Facial infrared thermography as an index of social anxiety.

Previous research on physiological indices of social anxiety has offered unclear results. In this study, participants with low and high social anxiety performed five social interaction tasks while being recorded with a thermal camera. Each task was associated with a dimension assessed by the Social Anxiety Questionnaire for Adults (1 = Interactions with strangers. 2 = Speaking in public/Talking with people in authority, 3 = Criticism and embarrassment, 4 = Assertive expression of annoyance, disgust or displeasure, 5 = Interactions with the opposite sex). Mixed-effects models revealed that the temperature of the tip of the nose decreased significantly in participants with low (vs. high) social anxiety (p < 0.001), while no significant differences were found in other facial regions of interest: forehead (p = 0.999) and cheeks (p = 0.999). Furthermore, task 1 was the most effective at discriminating between the thermal change of the nose tip and social anxiety, with a trend for a higher nose temperature in participants with high social anxiety and a lower nose temperature for the low social anxiety group. We emphasize the importance of corroborating thermography with specific tasks as an ecological method, and tip of the nose thermal change as a psychophysiological index associated with social anxiety.

Pain and Psychological Readiness to Return to Sport in Elite Volleyball Players: A Cross-Sectional Study.

Pain is modulated by multiple factors. A relevant psychological process peculiar to athletes and which could be associated with pain is Psychological Readiness to Return to Sport (PRRS). The analysis of this association in competition context is particularly important. OBJECTIVE: To determine the correlation between the PRRS and pain intensity in elite volleyball players during their participation in a continental sporting event. METHODS: A cross-sectional study was conducted. Data from 107 male volleyball players (23.50 ± 4.08 years of age) participating in the South American Volleyball Championship were used. The athletes answered a self-report questionnaire on the day the championship began regarding their history of injuries in the previous six months. The athletes who declared injuries were asked about the current pain intensity using the Pain Numeric Rating Scale (NRS) and Psychological Readiness to Return to Sport using the Injury-Psychological Readiness to Return to Sport scale (I-PRRS). RESULTS: 43.93% (n = 47) of the athletes (23.70 ± 3.54 years) reported an injury in the six months prior to the championship. They presented a median on the NRS of three (interquartile range (IQR), 2-5), and 54 (IQR, 46-58) on the I-PRRS. The Spearman's Rho correlation test showed an inversely and moderate correlation (rs = -0.36; p = 0.011; CI: -0.64--0.08) between pain intensity and PRRS. CONCLUSIONS: In male elite volleyball players who participate in a Continental Championship in South America, higher levels of PRRS was correlated to lower pain intensity.

The use of transcutaneous Vagal Nerve Stimulation as an effective countermeasure for Simulator Adaptation Syndrome.

This research focused on investigating the effectiveness of Transcutaneous Vagal Nerve Stimulation (tVNS) as compared to Galvanic Cutaneous Stimulation (GCS) at mitigating Simulator Adaptation Syndrome (SAS). Fifty drivers (mean age = 23.04 ± 17.71 years old, twenty-two men) participated in a driving simulation experiment. The total scores of the Simulator Sickness Questionnaire, head movements (body balance index), and driving performance variables were measured under five stimulation conditions: i) baseline (no stimulation delivered), ii) sham GCS, iii) sham tVNS, iv) active GCS, and v) active tNVS. The results showed that tVNS alleviated SAS and improved driving performance variables more effectively than GCS. We conclude that GCS and tVNS have similar neurological mechanisms to reduce SAS, providing possible explanations for the greater effectiveness of tVNS. We encourage the use of tVNS to decrease SAS.

Psychometric Properties of the PCS and the PCS-4 in Individuals With Musculoskeletal Pain.

BACKGROUND: The factor structure of the Pain Catastrophizing Scale (PCS) has rarely been adequately analyzed (e.g., performing principal component analyses rather than factorial approximations). We aimed to evaluate the psychometric properties of the PCS through a variety of exploratory and confirmatory factorial approaches. METHOD: Three hundred ninety-four Chilean patients with musculoskeletal pain were included (age, M = 49.61, SD = 18.00; 71.57% women). Eight factorial models were proposed to analyze the structure of the data. In addition, validity evidence of the PCS based on relationships with other variables were analyzed considering pain intensity and kinesiophobia. RESULTS: The results suggest a unidimensional structure. Models with more than one dimension exhibited undesirable factor loadings or inadequate indices of fit. Based on these results, a short version of the scale composed of 4 items is proposed (PCS-4). The PCS-4 scores demonstrated high levels of invariance between sex, chronicity, and education groups and also were associated with pain and kinesiophobia. CONCLUSIONS: The results of the PCS-4 Spanish version showed evidence of reliability and validity for adequately measuring pain catastrophizing in Chileans who suffer from musculoskeletal pain. The PCS-4 is a short form that should be explored in future studies (e.g., in other Spanish-speaking populations).

Transcutaneous Vagal Stimulation in Knee Osteoarthritis (TRAVKO): Protocol of a Superiority, Outcome Assessor- and Participant-Blind, Randomised Controlled Trial.

Current treatments for knee osteoarthritis (KOA) are partially effective. It is, therefore, necessary to find new strategies that can complement the existing ones. In this scenario, transcutaneous vagal stimulation (TVS) neurophysiological effects could be a helpful solution. However, there is no evidence of the efficacy of TVS in KOA. This trial aims to assess the efficacy of TVS in decreasing pain in participants aged 55 years or older with KOA. A randomised controlled, two-arm, double-blind (participants and outcome assessors) and clinical superiority trial will be conducted for 70 patients with KOA. All the participants will carry out an exercise program. It consists of 12 sessions over four weeks. In addition, they will be randomly assigned to (1) active TVS plus physical exercise or (2) sham TVS plus physical exercise. The application of active TVS consists of electronic stimulation of the auricular concha using a portable device. Sham TVS condition consists of the stimulation of the earlobe that does not cause neurophysiological effects. The primary outcome is the reduction in pain intensity. Additionally, functional capacity, physical performance, pain-related interference, pain-related distress, quality of life in older adults and global change will be measured. Assessments will be conducted at the beginning of the study (baseline), at the end of the intervention and after 1 and 3 months of follow-up. This trial will generate evidence regarding the efficacy of TVS in pain perception in individuals with KOA. This information will serve as an input in the clinical decision-making on the use or non-use of TVS in individuals with KOA. Thus, if the efficacy of TVS is confirmed, a new therapeutic tool may be included in the rehabilitation of individuals with KOA.

Psychometric Properties of the PCS and the PCS-4 in Individuals With Musculoskeletal Pain / Propiedades Psicométricas de la PCS y PCS-4 en Individuos con DolorMusculoesquelético

Background: The factor structure of the Pain Catastrophizing Scale (PCS)has rarely been adequately analyzed (e.g., performing principal componentanalyses rather than factorial approximations). We aimed to evaluate thepsychometric properties of the PCS through a variety of exploratory andconfirmatory factorial approaches. Method: Three hundred ninety-fourChilean patients with musculoskeletal pain were included (age, M = 49.61,SD = 18.00; 71.57% women). Eight factorial models were proposed toanalyze the structure of the data. In addition, validity evidence of the PCSbased on relationships with other variables were analyzed considering painintensity and kinesiophobia. Results: The results suggest a unidimensionalstructure. Models with more than one dimension exhibited undesirablefactor loadings or inadequate indices of fit. Based on these results, a shortversion of the scale composed of 4 items is proposed (PCS-4). The PCS-4scores demonstrated high levels of invariance between sex, chronicity, andeducation groups and also were associated with pain and kinesiophobia.Conclusions: The results of the PCS-4 Spanish version showed evidenceof reliability and validity for adequately measuring pain catastrophizing inChileans who suffer from musculoskeletal pain. The PCS-4 is a short formthat should be explored in future studies (e.g., in other Spanish-speakingpopulations).

Antecedentes: la estructura factorial de la Escala deCatastrofización del Dolor (PCS) rara vez se ha analizado adecuadamente. Elobjetivo de este estudio fue evaluar las propiedades psicométricas del PCSa través de diferentes enfoques factoriales exploratorios y confirmatorios.Método: se incluyeron trescientos noventa y cuatro pacientes chilenos condolor musculoesquelético (edad, M=49,61; DE=18,00; 71,57% mujeres). Sepropusieron ocho modelos factoriales. Asimismo, se analizó la evidencia devalidez de la PCS basada en relaciones con otras variables considerando laintensidad del dolor y la kinesiofobia. Resultados: los resultados sugierenuna estructura unidimensional. Los modelos con más de una dimensiónmostraron cargas factoriales o índices de ajuste inadecuados. A partir deestos resultados se propone una versión corta de la escala compuesta por4 ítems (PCS-4). Las puntuaciones de PCS-4 mostraron altos niveles deinvarianza entre sexos, cronicidad del dolor y niveles educativos. La PCS-4también se asoció con otras medias de dolor y kinesiofobia. Conclusiones:los resultados de la PCS-4 versión en español mostraron evidencia defiabilidad y validez para medir adecuadamente el catastrofismo del dolor enchilenos con dolor musculoesquelético. El PCS-4 es una forma corta quedebería explorarse en estudios futuros (por ejemplo, en otras poblacioneshispanoparlantes).

The Effect of Sleep Quality on Pain in Chilean Individuals with Musculoskeletal Disorders.

Poor sleep quality (SQ) negatively affects pain associated with musculoskeletal disorders (MSD). As the level of economic development of a country determines its sanitary conditions, these can influence the sleep-pain relationship; therefore, it is relevant to generate evidence in the population with MSD in developing countries. This cross-sectional study sought to determine the effect of poor SQ on pain in Chilean individuals with MSD, controlling for sex and duration of pain (in months). METHOD: A total of 228 individuals were included. SQ was measured with the Pittsburg Sleep Quality Index (PSQI), pain (intensity, interference and distress relative to pain) was measured with visual analog scales. Structural equation modeling (SEM) was performed to analyze the effect of SQ on pain. RESULTS: A high frequency of poor SQ was present in the studied group, and was more prevalent in women. The SEM model evidenced that poor SQ predicts greater pain. Sex influences sleep quality and pain, but not pain duration. CONCLUSIONS: These findings indicate that poor SQ predicts higher pain in MSD and that women exhibit worse SQ and more significant pain than men. Our findings support that SQ should be considered in the comprehensive approach to pain in individuals with MSD.

Effect of adduction during glenohumeral external rotation exercises in the scapulohumeral muscles / Efecto de la adducción durante ejercicios de rotación externa glenohumeral en los músculos escapulohumerales

SUMMARY: The effect of adduction during glenohumeral external rotation (ER) exercises on the scapulohumeral muscles is controversial. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of carrying out adduction during external rotation exercises in low and high shoulder positions on the electromyographic (EMG) activity of the infraspinatus (IS), middle deltoid (MD), and posterior deltoid (PD) muscles. EMG activity of the IS, MD, and PD muscles of 20 healthy participants was evaluated. Subjects performed 6 ER exercises that combined two factors: i) different adduction pressures according to biofeedback unit (0, 5 and 10 mmHg), and ii) low and high shoulder position. The pressure was controlled using a biofeedback unit. The low and high shoulder positions were 20? and 90? of abduction. In the low shoulder position, the activity of the IS muscle increased as the pressure on the biofeedback unit increased and the MD and PD muscles presented the highest activity at 10 mmHg. In the high shoulder position, the activity of the IS muscle was higher at 0 and 10 mmHg, the MD muscle presented higher activity at 5 mmHg, and PD muscle activity did not vary with the pressure. The addition of adduction at a pressure of 5 mmHg in the low shoulder position promotes is activity. Likewise, adduction at a pressure of 10 mmHg will promote activity of the IS, MD, and PD.

RESUMEN: El efecto de la aducción durante los ejercicios de rotación externa (RE) glenohumeral sobre los músculos escapulohumerales es controversial. El objetivo de este estudio fue evaluar el efecto de la realización de la aducción durante los ejercicios de rotación externa en posiciones bajas y altas del hombro sobre la actividad electromiográfica (EMG) delos músculos infraespinoso (IS), deltoides medio (DM) y deltoides posterior (DP). Se evaluó la actividad EMG de los músculos IS, MD y PD de 20 participantes sanos. Los sujetos realizaron 6 ejercicios de RE que combinaron dos factores: i) diferentes presiones de aducción de acuerdo con la unidad de biorretroalimentación (0, 5 y 10 mmHg), y ii) posición del hombro baja y alta. La presión se controló mediante una unidad de biorretroalimentación. Las posiciones del hombro baja y alta fueron de 20? y 90? de abducción. En la posición del hombro bajo, la actividad del músculo IS aumentó a medida que aumentaba la presión sobre la unidad de biorretroalimentación y los músculos MD y PD presentaron la actividad más alta a 10 mmHg. En la posición del hombro alto, la actividad del músculo IS fue mayor a 0 y 10 mmHg, el músculo MD presentó mayor actividad a 5 mmHg y la actividad del músculo PD no varió con la presión. La adición de aducción a una presión de 5 mmHg en la posición baja del hombro promueve la actividad del músculo IS. Asimismo, la aducción a una presión de 10 mmHg promoverá la actividad del IS, MD y PD.

Association between sleep quality and pain in young amateur athletes / Asociación entre calidad del sueño y dolor en jóvenes atletas amateurs / Associação entre qualidade do sono e dor em jovens atletas amadores

ABSTRACT Introduction: It has been shown that there is a close association between sleep quality and pain. In young athletes, sleep disorders and pain have a particularly high prevalence; however, the relationship between them has not been widely studied. Objective: To study the association between sleep quality and pain in young athletes. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted in which 71 young amateur athletes (39 males) were included. The mean age was 16.9 ± 1.2 years, with 6.5 ± 3.2 years of sports practice and 5.2 ± 1.2 hours of training per week. Sleep quality was evaluated using the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI). The participants were classified according to sleep quality, as PSQI-I = without sleep disorders, PSQI-II = requiring medical assistance and PSQI-III = requiring medical assistance and treatment. Also, pain intensity was assessed on the Numerical Rating Scale, both at rest (NRSr) and during sports activity (NRSs), along with pain duration. Results: The individuals classified as PSQI-III presented higher NRSr (Mdn = 2.0; IQR = 4.0 vs. Mdn = 0.0; IQR = 2.0; p = 0.04) and higher NRSs (Mdn = 4.0; IQR = 5.0 vs. Mdn = 0.0; IQR = 2.0; p = 0.03) than the individuals classified as PSQI-I. No differences were observed in relation to pain duration. The PSQI score was positively but weakly associated with NRSr (rs = 0.24, p=0.046) and NRSs (rs = 0.27, p = 0.03) but not with pain duration. Conclusion: Young athletes with lower levels of sleep quality show higher levels of pain at rest and during sports practice. Therefore, sleep quality and pain should be considered in the routine assessment of young athletes, by technical and health teams. Level of evidence III; type of study: Cross-sectional .

RESUMEN Introducción: Se demostró que existe estrecha relación entre calidad del sueño y dolor. En atletas jóvenes, los disturbios del sueño y dolor tienen prevalencia bastante alta, sin embargo, la relación entre ellos no fue ampliamente estudiada. Objetivo: Estudiar la asociación entre calidad del sueño y dolor en atletas jóvenes. Métodos: Fue realizado un estudio transversal, en el cual fueron incluidos 71 atletas jóvenes amateurs (39 hombres). El promedio de edad fue de 16,9 ± 1,2 años, con 6,5 ± 3,2 años de práctica deportiva y 5,2 ± 1,2 horas de entrenamiento por semana. La calidad del sueño fue evaluada por medio del Índice de Calidad del Sueño de Pittsburgh (PSQI). Los participantes fueron clasificados de acuerdo con la calidad del sueño, PSQI-I= sin disturbios del sueño, PSQI-II= requiere atención médica y PSQI-III= requiere atención médica y tratamiento. Además, la intensidad del dolor fue evaluada en la Escala de Evaluación Numérica en reposo (EANr) y durante la actividad deportiva (EANe), juntamente con la duración del dolor. Resultados: Los individuos clasificados como PSQI-III presentaron mayor valor en el EANr (Mdn = 2,0; IQR = 4,0 vs. Mdn = 0,0; IQR = 2,0; p = 0,04) y EANe mayores (Mdn = 4,0; IQR = 5,0 vs. Mdn = 0,0; IQR = 2,0; p = 0,03) que los individuos clasificados con PSQI-I. No fue observada ninguna diferencia con relación a la duración del dolor. El puntaje del PSQI fue positivo y con débil asociación a EANr (rs = 0,24, p=0.046) y EANe (rs = 0,27, p = 0,03), pero no con la duración del dolor. Conclusión: Los atletas jóvenes con niveles más bajos de calidad del sueño tienen niveles más elevados de dolor en reposo y durante la práctica deportiva. Por lo tanto, la calidad del sueño y el dolor deben ser considerados por los equipos técnicos y de salud en la evaluación rutinaria de atletas jóvenes. Nivel de evidencia III;Tipo de estudio: Transversal.

RESUMO Introdução: Demonstrou-se que existe estreita associação entre qualidade do sono e dor. Em atletas jovens, distúrbios do sono e dor têm prevalência bastante alta, no entanto, a relação entre eles não foi amplamente estudada. Objetivo: Estudar a associação entre qualidade do sono e dor em atletas jovens. Métodos: Foi realizado um estudo transversal, no qual foram incluídos 71 atletas jovens amadores (39 homens). A média de idade foi de 16,9 ± 1,2 anos, com 6,5 ± 3,2 anos de prática esportiva e 5,2 ± 1,2 horas de treinamento por semana. A qualidade do sono foi avaliada por meio do Índice de Qualidade do Sono de Pittsburgh (PSQI). Os participantes foram classificados de acordo com a qualidade do sono, PSQI-I = sem distúrbios do sono, PSQI-II = requer atendimento médico e PSQI-III = requer atendimento médico e tratamento. Além disso, intensidade da dor foi avaliada na Escala de Avaliação Numérica em repouso (EANr) e durante a atividade esportiva (EANe), juntamente com a duração da dor. Resultados: Os indivíduos classificados como PSQI-III apresentaram maior valor no EANr (Mdn = 2,0; IQR = 4,0 vs. Mdn = 0,0; IQR = 2,0; p = 0,04) e EANe maiores (Mdn = 4,0; IQR = 5,0 vs. Mdn = 0,0; IQR = 2,0; p = 0,03) do que os indivíduos classificados com PSQI-I. Nenhuma diferença foi observada com relação à duração da dor. O escore do PSQI foi positivo e com fraca associação a EANr (rs= 0,24, p=0.046) e EANe (rs= 0,27, p = 0,03), mas não com a duração da dor. Conclusão: Atletas jovens com níveis mais baixos de qualidade do sono têm níveis mais elevados de dor em repouso e durante a prática esportiva. Portanto, a qualidade do sono e a dor devem ser consideradas pelas equipes técnicas e de saúde na avaliação rotineira de atletas jovens. Nível de evidência III; Tipo de estudo: Transversal.

To the self and beyond: Arousal and functional connectivity of the temporo-parietal junction contributes to spontaneous sensations perception.

The temporoparietal junction (TPJ), along with the anterior insula (AI) and the extrastriate body area (EBA), play a major part in embodiment and self-awareness. However, these connections also appear to be frequently engaged in arousal and attentional processing of external events. Considering that these networks may focus attention both toward and away from the self, we set to investigate how they contribute to the perception of spontaneous sensations (SPS), a common phenomenon related to self-awareness and mediated by both interoceptive and attentional processes. In Experiment 1, resting-state EEG was recorded, as well as arousal reported via a questionnaire, followed by a SPS task. Functional TPJ-AI and TPJ-EBA connectivity were computed using eLORETA. Spatial correlational analyses showed that less frequent SPS coincided with greater TPJ-AI and TPJ-EBA functional connectivity, especially in the theta and alpha frequency bands. High self-reported arousal predicted low intensity and low confidence in the location of SPS. Resting-state skin conductance level (SCL) was recorded in Experiment 2, followed by the SPS task. Less frequent SPS coincided with greater SCL. Findings are interpreted in terms of attention and self-related processes, and a discussion of the TPJ participation in self-awareness through SPS is presented.

Joint and individual effectiveness of galvanic cutaneous stimulation and tactile stimulation at decreasing Simulator Adaptation Syndrome.

This research was focused on investigating the effectiveness of galvanic cutaneous stimulation and tactile stimulation jointly and individually at mitigating Simulator Adaptation Syndrome. Forty drivers (mean age = 23.1 ± 3.4 years old, twenty women) participated in a driving simulation experiment. Total scores of the Simulator Sickness Questionnaire, head movements (an index of body balance), and driving performance variables were compared across four different stimulation conditions: i) baseline (where no stimulation was presented), ii) galvanic cutaneous stimulation and iii) tactile stimulation deployed individually, and iv) both techniques deployed jointly. The results showed that both techniques presented in conjunction alleviate Simulator Adaptation Syndrome and improve driving performance more effectively than when they are presented in isolation. Importantly, reduced head movements were only revealed when galvanic cutaneous stimulation was applied. We concluded that the reduction of this syndrome is due to an improvement of body balance (elicited by galvanic cutaneous stimulation), and a distraction from the symptoms (elicited by tactile stimulation). We encourage the use of both techniques simultaneously to decrease Simulator Adaptation Syndrome.

Influence of violent contexts on facial reactions elicited by angry and neutral faces.

This study focuses on determining whether violent contexts influence the perception of aggressiveness in faces analysing spontaneous corrugator supercilii activity. Participants viewed pictures of neutral and angry faces preceded by a contextual sentence describing either violent or neutral actions. They were instructed to judge each face according to whether it was aggressive or non-aggressive. Results show a higher level of perceived aggressiveness for neutral faces preceded by violent contexts, accompanied by longer reaction times, and a significant increase of corrugator activity. Angry faces preceded by neutral contexts were judged as less aggressive and elicited less corrugator activity. In conclusion, our results provide evidence that facial reactions and aggressiveness judgment for faces are context-dependent. With this work, we contribute to the view that contextual cues guide the face's emotional meaning, under top-down processing.

Muscle activation in semantic processing: An electromyography approach.

In this study, we focus on the spontaneous activity related to manual verbs to determine the extent to which semantic processing of manual verbs affects spontaneous arm muscle activity. For this purpose, we recorded the arm's electromyographic activity while participants read manual and non-manual verbs, focusing their attention on the semantic content or a specific letter. In addition, we manipulated the arm position (in front of the body or behind the back) to observe postural priming effects for spontaneous muscle activity. Our results show that when arms were placed forward and the attention was directed to the semantic content, there was an enhanced spontaneous activation. Our results suggest that spontaneous motor responses are related to the involvement of the motor system in action language comprehension as suggested by language embodiment theories.

Decreasing motion sickness by mixing different techniques.

We investigated the effectiveness of galvanic cutaneous stimulation (GCS) and auditory stimulation (AS) together and separately in mitigating motion sickness (MS). Forty-eight drivers (twenty-two men; mean age = 21.58 years) participated in a driving simulation experiment. We compared the total scores of the Simulator Sickness Questionnaire (SSQ) across four different stimulation conditions (GCS, AS, Mixed GCS-AS and no stimulation as a baseline condition). We provided evidence that mixing techniques mitigates MS owing to an improvement in body balance; furthermore, mixing techniques improves driving behavior more effectively than GCS and AS in isolation. We encourage the use of the two techniques together to decrease MS.

Psychometric properties of the Spanish version of the Edinburgh Handedness Inventory in a sample of Chilean undergraduates.

An individual's nervous and cognitive systems are lateralized, and handedness represents a behavioral manifestation of such organization. Therefore, accurately and reliably measuring handedness has repercussion on our understanding of both the human brain and cognition. The Edinburgh Handedness Inventory (EHI) is the most frequently used instrument to measure handedness both in clinical practice and research. We assessed the psychometric properties of the Spanish version of the EHI in a sample of 348 Chilean university students by confirmatory factor analysis. Cronbach's alpha and composite reliability were calculated to evaluate the internal consistency and reliability of the EHI, while the average variance extracted was estimated to evaluate its convergent validity. A 10-item unifactorial structure was confirmed, with factor loadings ≥0.50, showing excellent goodness-of-fit indicators, very high internal consistency and adequate composite reliability and convergent validity. Socio-demographic variables (sex, area of residence and belonging to an indigenous people or community) did not significantly modulate the EHI scores. Overall, by using this validated version of the EHI to accurately and reliably measure handedness in the greater Spanish population, researchers will be able to produce robust data to tackle the still open questions of lateralization in human cognitive and neural architecture.

Pain and Distraction According to Sensory Modalities: Current Findings and Future Directions.

BACKGROUND: This review discusses the findings in the literature on pain and distraction tasks according to their sensory modality. Distraction tasks have been shown to reduce (experimentally induced) acute pain and chronic pain. This can be influenced by nature and by the sensory modalities used in the distraction tasks. Yet the effect on reducing pain according to the sensory modality of the distraction task has received little attention. METHODS: A bibliographic search was performed in different databases. The studies will be systematized according to the sensory modality in which the distraction task was applied. RESULTS: The analyzed studies with auditory distractors showed a reduction of acute pain in adults. However, these are not effective at healthy children and in adults with chronic pain. Visual distractors showed promising results in acute pain in adults and children. Similarly, tactile and mixed distractors decreased acute pain in adults. CONCLUSION: Distraction tasks by diverse sensory modalities have a positive effect on decreasing the perception of acute pain in adults. Future studies are necessary given the paucity of research on this topic, particularly with tactile distractors (there is only one study). Finally, the most rigorous methodology and the use of ecological contexts are encouraged in future research.

Hand Switching Costs are not Uniform Across Response Components.

We investigated the extent to which a complex finger sequence impacts on hand switching costs in a sequential action. Response component latencies (premotor, motor, and movement) were compared in no-switch (same finger performed the action of pressing and reaching) and switch conditions (pressing with one finger and completing the reaching action with the homologous finger from the other hand). Results showed that the switch condition presented longer latency for premotor and movement components. For the motor component, however, switch condition was faster. This expands the previous literature investigating switching costs using simple finger movements in more complex tasks. A mechanical explanation of the interplay between response subcomponents is provided to explain the inversion of response pattern for the motor component.

Response Inhibition as a Function of Movement Complexity and Movement Type Selection.

This study aims to determine whether response inhibition shows the same degree of effectiveness for two sources of motor complexity: (1) Movement complexity, which is measured through two actions with different motor requirements (simple lifting action vs. complex reaching action), and (2) Movement type selection, which is measured in movements performed separately (no active-movement type selection) vs. selectively (active-movement type selection). Activation-suppression model was tested in three experiments to measure activation of the preponderant responses and subsequent suppression in a Simon task. More errors and higher magnitude of congruence effect (which reflects greater effectiveness of response suppression) were expected for more difficult motor conditions. Reaction time, movement time, kinematic errors, and movement errors were recorded. Results of Experiment 1, in which movement type selection was not active, showed that both movements did not differ in their activation and suppression, as they presented similar kinematic error rates and Simon effects. Experiment 2, in which movement type selection was active, resulted in a higher kinematic error rate and higher magnitude of Simon effect in lifting. These results were confirmed in Experiment 3, in which participants performed all experimental motor complexity conditions. Finally, Experiment 4 showed that responses with similar movement complexity did not differ in their activation and suppression, even when movement type selection was active. Thus, the present study provides evidence on the varying effectiveness of response inhibition as a function of movement complexity, but only in demanding situations in which movement type selection is active. These results can be attributed to a top-down strategy to minimize error for actions most prone to develop kinematic error.

Thoughts and sensations, twin galaxies of the inner space: The propensity to mind-wander relates to spontaneous sensations arising on the hands.

Sensations and thoughts have been described as potentially related to self-awareness. We therefore asked whether sensations that arise in the absence of external triggers, i.e., spontaneous sensations (SPS), which were shown to relate to interoception and perception of the self, vary as a function of the individual propensity to generate spontaneous thoughts, i.e., mind-wandering. The Mind Wandering Questionnaire (MWQ) was used as a specific tool to assess the frequency and propensity to mind-wander several weeks before completing an SPS task. Correlational analyses between the MWQ score and SPS showed that greater propensity to mind-wander coincided with widespread perception of SPS, while lesser propensity to mind-wander coincided with more spatially restricted perception of SPS. The results are interpreted in light of the role of spontaneous thoughts and sensations in self-awareness. The potential psychological processes and the way they might regulate the relation between mind-wandering and the perception of SPS are discussed.

Mitigating Simulator Adaptation Syndrome by means of tactile stimulation.

Some drivers experience Simulator Adaptation Syndrome (SAS), a condition in which nausea, disorientation, dizziness, headache, and difficulty focusing, are exhibited when driving in a simulator. To reduce this syndrome, we investigated the efficacy of tactile stimulation (TS) on mitigating Simulator Adaptation Syndrome (SAS) in a driving simulation. Fifteen drivers (eight women; mean age = 24.07 years) participated in this experiment. We compared the total scores of the Simulator Sickness Questionnaire (SSQ) across two stimulation conditions (TS condition and no stimulation condition as a baseline measure). The experimental outcomes revealed that TS seemed to decrease SAS due to attentional distraction from the symptoms and not because of an improvement in balance ability.